Annexation to Statehood: Hawaiʻi 1898-1959

A Note from the Author: This article was written by someone learning about Hawaiian history with deep respect for the culture. While I've done my best to provide accurate information based on historical research and scholarship, please use this as a starting point for your own learning journey. For more nuanced and in-depth understanding, I encourage you to seek out books and resources authored by Native Hawaiian historians and cultural practitioners. Mahalo for your understanding!

The period between annexation in 1898 and statehood in 1959 was a time of profound transformation for Hawaiʻi. Once an independent kingdom, Hawaiʻi became a U.S. territory, experiencing dramatic demographic, economic, and cultural changes while Native Hawaiians struggled to preserve their identity and rights.

Annexation: 1898

On July 7, 1898, President William McKinley signed the Newlands Resolution, annexing Hawaiʻi to the United States. This happened during the Spanish-American War, when Hawaiʻi's strategic location in the Pacific became militarily valuable.

The Process Was Controversial:

• Annexation was accomplished by joint resolution, not treaty (which couldn't get the required two-thirds Senate vote)
• Over 38,000 Native Hawaiians signed petitions opposing annexation
• Native Hawaiians were not allowed to vote on their nation's fate
• International law experts questioned the legality
• Queen Liliʻuokalani and Hawaiian patriots protested vigorously

What Changed:

• Hawaiʻi became a U.S. territory, not a state
• The U.S. Constitution applied, but Hawaiians had no voting representation in Congress
• Crown and government lands were ceded to the U.S. (1.8 million acres)
• Hawaiian language was suppressed in schools
• American laws and customs replaced Hawaiian ones

The Organic Act of 1900

The Organic Act established the government structure for the Territory of Hawaiʻi:

• Created a territorial legislature
• Established a governor appointed by the U.S. President
• Extended U.S. citizenship to Hawaiian residents
• Applied U.S. labor laws (ending contract labor system)
• Established English as the official language of government and education

While this gave some democratic representation, real power remained with the appointed governor and the U.S. Congress.

The Plantation Economy

Sugar and pineapple plantations dominated Hawaiʻi's economy during the territorial period. The "Big Five" corporations controlled:

• Sugar and pineapple production
• Shipping and transportation
• Banking and finance
• Retail and wholesale trade
• Much of the political power

These companies (Castle & Cooke, Alexander & Baldwin, C. Brewer & Co., Theo H. Davies & Co., and American Factors) were controlled by descendants of missionaries and businessmen who had overthrown the monarchy.

Immigration and Demographic Change

To work the plantations, laborers were recruited from around the world:

• Chinese: First major immigrant group (1850s-1880s)
• Japanese: Largest group by 1900
• Portuguese: From Madeira and the Azores
• Puerto Ricans: After 1900
• Koreans: Early 1900s
• Filipinos: 1906 onward, eventually the largest group

By 1920, Native Hawaiians were less than 20% of the population in their own homeland. This demographic shift had profound cultural and political implications.

Suppression of Hawaiian Culture

During the territorial period, Hawaiian culture faced systematic suppression:

Language:

• Hawaiian was banned as the language of instruction in schools (1896)
• Children were punished for speaking Hawaiian
• English became mandatory for government and business
• Hawaiian language newspapers closed
• By the 1980s, fewer than 50 children spoke Hawaiian as their first language

Culture:

• Hula was discouraged as "heathen" or "primitive"
• Traditional practices were seen as backwards
• Hawaiian religion and spirituality were suppressed
• Western education replaced traditional knowledge systems

Land:

• Native Hawaiians lost access to traditional lands
• The ahupuaʻa system was completely dismantled
• Crown lands were taken by the U.S. government
• Many Hawaiians became landless in their own homeland

World War II: A Turning Point

The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, brought World War II to Hawaiʻi and changed everything.

During the War:

• Hawaiʻi was placed under martial law (1941-1944)
• Military controlled the islands
• Japanese Americans faced suspicion and some internment (though less than on the mainland)
• Hawaiʻi became a crucial military base for the Pacific theater
• The economy shifted from agriculture to military

The 100th Battalion and 442nd Regimental Combat Team:

Japanese American soldiers from Hawaiʻi formed the 100th Infantry Battalion and later the 442nd Regimental Combat Team, becoming the most decorated unit in U.S. military history. Their service proved their loyalty and helped break down racial barriers.

Impact on Statehood:

• Hawaiʻi's strategic importance was proven
• Military presence increased dramatically
• Racial attitudes began to shift
• Veterans returned demanding equal rights
• The push for statehood gained momentum

The Push for Statehood

After World War II, the movement for statehood accelerated:

Arguments For Statehood:

• Equal representation in Congress
• Full rights as American citizens
• Economic benefits and federal funding
• End to appointed governors
• Pride and equality with other states

Arguments Against Statehood:

• Loss of Hawaiian sovereignty (for independence advocates)
• Racial prejudice (some in Congress opposed a non-white majority state)
• Fear of labor unions and Democratic control
• Concerns about communist influence
• Desire to maintain territorial status quo

The Democratic Revolution:

In 1954, Democrats (many of Japanese, Chinese, and Filipino descent) won control of the territorial legislature, breaking the Republican oligarchy's power. This shift made statehood more likely.

The Statehood Vote

In June 1959, Hawaiʻi residents voted on statehood:

• Result: 94% voted yes (132,773 to 7,854)
• Turnout: Very high, showing strong interest
• Options: The ballot offered only statehood or remain a territory - independence was not an option
• Native Hawaiian vote: Many Native Hawaiians voted yes, seeing it as the best available option, though some opposed it

On August 21, 1959, President Dwight D. Eisenhower signed the proclamation making Hawaiʻi the 50th state.

What Statehood Meant

Political Changes:

• Two U.S. Senators and Representatives in Congress
• Electoral votes in presidential elections
• Elected governor instead of appointed
• Full application of U.S. Constitution
• State legislature with local control

Economic Changes:

• Increased federal funding
• Tourism boom (statehood made Hawaiʻi more attractive to visitors)
• Decline of plantation agriculture
• Growth of service economy
• Real estate development accelerated

Social Changes:

• Increased migration from the mainland
• Further demographic shifts
• Growing middle class
• Improved education and infrastructure
• Continued erosion of Hawaiian culture (initially)

What Was Lost

For Native Hawaiians, statehood was bittersweet:

• Sovereignty: Any hope of restoring Hawaiian independence seemed gone
• Land: Ceded lands remained under U.S. control
• Culture: Hawaiian language and traditions continued to decline
• Identity: Hawaiians became a minority in their own homeland
• Self-determination: Decisions about Hawaiʻi were made in Washington D.C.

The Ceded Lands Issue

When Hawaiʻi became a state, 1.8 million acres of former Crown and government lands (the "ceded lands") were transferred from the U.S. to the State of Hawaiʻi, with the requirement that they be held in trust for Native Hawaiians and the general public.

This remains controversial because:

• These lands were taken illegally from the Hawaiian Kingdom
• Native Hawaiians never consented to their transfer
• The state has used them for purposes not benefiting Native Hawaiians
• They represent a significant portion of Hawaiʻi's land base

Seeds of the Hawaiian Renaissance

Even as statehood seemed to finalize American control, seeds of cultural revival were being planted:

• Some Hawaiians never forgot their history
• Cultural practitioners continued traditional practices in secret
• Families passed down language and knowledge
• The civil rights movement inspired indigenous activism
• Growing awareness that Hawaiian culture was in danger

The stage was set for the Hawaiian Renaissance of the 1970s, when Hawaiians would reclaim their culture and demand justice.

Reflections on This Period

The period from annexation to statehood was marked by:

• Loss: Of sovereignty, land, language, and culture
• Transformation: From Hawaiian kingdom to American state
• Resilience: Hawaiian culture survived despite suppression
• Complexity: Not all changes were negative, but the cost was high
• Injustice: Native Hawaiians had little say in their fate

Understanding this history is essential for understanding modern Hawaiʻi and the ongoing sovereignty movement.

The Question That Remains

What would have happened if Native Hawaiians had been given a real choice? What if the options had included:

• Restoration of the Hawaiian Kingdom
• Independence as a republic
• Free association with the U.S.
• Statehood
• Territorial status

We'll never know, because that choice was never offered. The path from overthrow to annexation to statehood was determined by others, not by the Hawaiian people themselves.

E hoʻi i ka pono. (Return to righteousness.)

This is part 7 of our Hawaiian History Series.

Read Part 1: Ancient Hawaiʻi - The Polynesian Voyagers

Read Part 2: The Ahupuaʻa System

Read Part 3: The Aliʻi - Hawaiian Royalty and Governance

Read Part 4: Kamehameha the Great - Unification of the Islands

Read Part 5: The Hawaiian Kingdom - Monarchy and Sovereignty

Read Part 6: Queen Liliʻuokalani and the Overthrow

Stay tuned for Part 8: The Hawaiian Renaissance and Sovereignty Movement